 |
     |
|
A
Practical Guide to Education Chapter 6
|
WHAT ARE THE STUDENTS SUPPOSE TO LEARN
|
In many countries the government
and/or the Ministry of Education have set specific educational goals and
objectives to which teachers must adhere. However, in some situations such
official goals and objectives do not exist or are not available. This chapter
identifies educational goals and objectives for primary education which
can be used as preliminary resources for planning new educational programs
and for augmenting existing educational programs. These goals and objectives
were chosen based on review and analysis of the most recent syllabi and
curricula for primary education in Botswana, Ghana, Rwanda, Southern Sudan,
Uganda, USA, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and others. These goals and objectives cover
five subject areas |
|
l Language,
including mother tongue and second languages |
l Mathematics,
including numbers, patterns, relations, shapes, measurement and estimates,
fractions and decimals |
l Science,
including health, nutrition, environment, physical education |
l Social
Studies, including history, geography, economics, civics and government,
and conflict management |
l Health,
Nutrition, and Physical Development, including personal hygiene, nutrition,
safety and first aid, human growth |
and development, and physical training
|
|
The suggested goals and objectives
are meant to cover the first three grades of primary school. Ideally, children
are able to attend school for five days per week and have a couple of hours
available per week to study at home. In this situation, the goals and objectives
set below could be covered in three to four years. However, in emergency
situations time is often lacking and school schedules must be flexible.
It may happen that more than four years will be needed to complete these
goals and objectives. Schedules should be set jointly by teachers and parents,
depending on local circumstances. |
|
l
Please remember that every child learns at a different pace, depending on
his/her age, abilities, learning patterns, and behavior. Therefore, it is
likely that different children will reach the suggested goals and objectives
at different times. |
|
LANGUAGE
|
|
The language skills are very important
in all aspects of our lives today. We communicate constantly by reading
writing, speaking, listening, and reading. Students need to practice and
develop these skills to realize their full potential as adults. The skills
and knowledge of language are essential for student success in virtually
all areas of the curriculum. They are also central requirements for the
development of clear expression and critical thinking. |
|
Most children will come to school
with already a very good grasp of a language, or perhaps even more than
one language. In most communities, children will already know their mother
tongue. In some communities they will also be familiar with another lingua
franca, such as Swahili in Tanzania or international languages like English,
French or Portuguese. Since reading and writing are extensions of listening
and speaking, it is important for children to start learning in their native
language or in a language that the child already knows. In this way, young
children can acquire basic literacy, learn the fundamentals in various subjects,
and adjust to the school demands before they begin studying other national
or international languages. In addition, studying native languages is important
for: |
|
l preservation
of cultural heritage |
l
self-esteem |
l self-identification |
|
Goals
for language learning |
|
As a result of their primary schooling,
students will be able to: |
|
l
read, comprehend, interpret, and use written material |
l listen
critically and analytically |
l write
in a well-organized and coherent manner |
l use
spoken language effectively to communicate ideas and information and to
ask and answer questions |
|
Remember that every child learns
to speak, listen, read, and write at a different pace, depending on his/her
age, ability, learning pattern, and behavior. Therefore, it is likely that
different children will reach the suggested goals and objectives at different
times. For example, a younger child is likely to learn reading and writing
skills much slower than an older child. Try to address individual differences
of students' learning patterns, styles, and abilities by utilizing appropriate
teaching methodologies and activities as suggested in the chapter 5 on how
to teach in a variety of situations. |
|
PREPARATION
FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING |
|
Preparation for learning is a very
important part of teaching. When a child first enters school, it is essential
to spend some time preparing for learning rather than trying to teach knowledge
and skills immediately. In some countries, preparation for learning begins
at home or in early childhood centers. Since many countries do not have
such opportunities, the preparation for learning must take place in the
primary school. This section covers some of the aspects of preparation for
learning the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. |
|
Listening, speaking, reading,
and writing |
|
Almost all children have learned
to speak and listen by the time they start school - even though some children
have had more experience with language than others (Landers, 1997). Speaking
and listening skills are learned gradually and naturally. Reading and writing
skills can be learned in the same way. Preparation for reading can include
the following activities: |
l Having
colorful pictures linked to a word for the children to see everyday.
This can be done by having pictures and posters on the walls of your classroom.
You can easily make these pictures yourself by cutting them out from magazines
or by drawing them yourself. Colorful books which have many pictures are
important. The children will be attracted to the books, and will enjoy handling
them and looking at the pictures. |
|
l Reading
to children, especially reading enjoyable stories, is an important way of
preparing for learning. Children will understand that books contain
interesting and important materials, and will look forward to being able
to read books on their own. |
|
l Another
way of preparing children to read and write is to ask them to express themselves
in different ways. Is there something they want to say to their father
or mother or to their friends? Did something happen yesterday that they
want to tell everyone about? Is there something they would like to describe?
Then you the teacher can write this sentence or word out for the child.
This will help the child to understand that reading and writing are extensions
of listening and speaking. Learning how to speak and express themselves
in words as well as in other forms of communication such as singing, dancing,
acting, drawing, etc., are important preparations for learning to read and
to write. |
|
l Drawing
and painting can be important ways of introducing children not only to self-expression
but also to written and spoken words. If a child makes a drawing of
a tree or a dog, you can write the word "tree" or "dog" next to the picture.
In this way the child will associate the word with the picture. |
|
l The
child must develop the finger and hand muscles to hold a pen or pencil in
order to write. These muscles are usually not well developed in a small
child, so you must allow lots of practice in handling and using the pen
and pencil. It will take many years before a child develops the dexterity
to write well. Please remember that it will take less time for an older
child to acquire writing skills. |
|
Grade
One - OBJECTIVES FOR MOTHER TONGUE LEARNING |
|
The first level of language learning
focuses on the development of listening and speaking skills, followed by
a gradual introduction of reading and writing skills. |
|
At the end of the first level of
schooling, students will be able to: |
|
Listening |
|
l follow
oral directions or instructions accurately |
l listen
to songs, stories, poems, and plays to develop memory for sequence |
l identify
the main ideas from simple messages |
|
Speaking |
|
l give
clear spoken directions or instructions |
l use
acceptable ways to gain attention |
l speak
clearly and in complete sentences |
l describe
people objects, surroundings, feelings, and experiences |
l prepare
short oral presentations (e.g. recite short poems, rhymes, prayers) |
l
tell a story about a personal event |
|
Reading |
|
l recognize
the letters/signs of the alphabet by shape and sound |
l
associate sounds with letters |
l obtain
information from visual aids |
l read
simple words and sentences |
|
Writing |
|
l
recognize written language as a means of communication |
l write
shapes, letters, and simple words |
|
Grade
Two: OBJECTIVES FOR MOTHER TONGUE LEARNING |
Some time should be spent renewing
what was learned in Level One to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
At the end of the second level of
schooling, students will be able to: |
|
Listening |
|
l accurately
carry out oral instructions and directions |
l distinguish
between formal spoken language and information (if appropriate in a language) |
l
recall the content of a simple oral message |
l listen
respectfully to oral contributions of others |
l
identify the main ideas in simple items of information |
l listen
for specific information to answer simple questions |
|
Speaking |
|
l give
clear spoken directions or instructions |
l
pronounce words clearly |
l
express simple ideas clearly |
l
speak respectfully to others |
l distinguish
between formal spoken language and information (if appropriate in a language) |
l recite
simple poems or songs aloud or to oneself |
l
tell simple events or stories in a sequential order |
|
Reading |
|
l accurately
carry out written instructions or directions |
l read
simple passages and short stories |
l be
able to communicate to others what you have read |
l identify
word meaning from the text |
|
Writing |
|
l write
words and simple sentences |
l refine
handwriting skills |
|
Grade
Three: OBJECTIVES FOR MOTHER TONGUE LEARNING |
Some time should be spent renewing
what was learned in Level Two to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
At the end of the third level of
schooling, students will be able to: |
|
Listening |
|
l listen
attentively for longer periods of time |
l recall
the content of oral messages (e.g. rules, instructions, short stories) |
l
comprehend the main ideas of information given orally |
l
identify facts, details, and sequence of spoken messages |
l draw
conclusions from simple texts |
|
Speaking |
|
l speak
with a clear and understandable voice |
l pronounce
words clearly |
l describe
people, places, and events in connected utterances |
l
identify the main idea and supporting details in an oral message |
l
tell more complex events or stories in a sequential order |
|
Reading |
|
l read
simple texts (e.g. poems, short stories, songs) |
l recognize,
recall, and summarize simple text |
l
identify the main ideas from simple text |
l draw
conclusions from simple text |
|
Writing |
|
l write
simple instructions or directions clearly |
l write
complete sentences |
l spell
common words correctly |
|
Some suggestions for language
teaching |
|
As a teacher, your role is to facilitate
your students to learn to communicate - to read, speak, listen, and write
in such a fashion that they may understand others and be understood in turn.
Effective language learning occurs when reading, writing, listening, and
speaking activities become mutually supportive. Teachers should constantly
help children to make meaningful connections between the four modes: reading
leads to writing, leads to talking, leads to listening, leads to reading.
Each is a natural consequence of the others. Growth in one mode of language
leads to growth in another. This section provides some suggestions for teaching
language skills in primary schools. |
|
Listening skills |
|
We spend a great deal of our time
everyday listening to what people around us are saying. We often regard
listening as a passive skill. Little or no time is given to it in our classroom
activities because children appear to be doing nothing. Yet, listening is
the basis for all other language skills and should be practiced regularly.
Therefore, it is important for the teachers to develop methods and strategies
that will help their students to develop listening and comprehension skills.
Activities for developing listening and comprehension skills |
|
Oral message delivery. A child
can be sent to deliver a message. The length of the message will depend
on the stage of development and ability of the student. |
|
Oral instructions. Children
can be given a set of instructions to carry out. For example, "Open the
book at page 29," or " Draw a house with four windows." Exercises should
include more detail and become more complex as the students progress. |
|
Listening comprehension. Children
listen to statements read out one by one and answer true or false. Read
out each statement once --- no repeating. |
|
Story telling. Everyone enjoys
listening to a story well told. Body movement and changes of voice contribute
towards good story telling. Sometimes stop in the middle and ask a few questions
to check children's comprehension. |
|
Dictation. Short, simple passages
can be dictated to the children. Read the passage through while the children
listen. Read it again slowly, pausing between meaningful phrases while the
children write. Then read it aloud again while they check their work so
that they get immediate feedback. |
|
Speaking skills |
|
Speech is the foundation for reading
and writing. Children must be able to understand and use words before they
can write them. Therefore, they must be given time to talk about the things
that interest children, to learn rhymes and jingles, and to dramatize their
experiences. In the lower grades the emphasis should be on well directed
oral work to lay a solid foundation on which to build the reading and writing
skills. There are some suggestions for encouraging children to speak in
the classroom: |
|
A warm and friendly classroom atmosphere
will encourage children to speak freely |
Give an opportunity for children
to talk informally with the teacher, to one another, to a group, or the
whole class |
Spark children's curiosity and encourage
them to ask questions |
Choose topics related to the current
interests of children |
Make sure that every child in the
class has a chance to talk during a specific period of time. |
|
Activities for developing speaking
skills |
|
Story retelling. Story retelling
is a means of evaluating the child's ability to perceive and recall events.
The use of story retelling encourages the students to organize, comprehend,
and structure sentences |
|
Observation and description.
Examine something up close in nature, like a leaf, a rock, or a shell. Encourage
the children to use their powers of observation. Ask them to describe what
they see |
|
Conversations. Spend sufficient
time developing a young child's confidence in holding a conversation with
the teacher or classmates. Students need opportunities to communicate their
ideas to each other and to realize that they have information that is worth
sharing with someone else |
|
Discussion. Through discussion,
students learn to express themselves clearly and convincingly, to share
ideas, to appreciate others' opinions, and to cooperate in solving problems.
Your first task as a teacher is to develop a pattern of interchange through
questioning techniques and focusing discussion which engages the students'
minds and imaginations. Secondly, you should manage the environment in such
a way that the discussion group is small enough for children to feel comfortable
and motivated to share their thoughts. |
|
Show and tell. Allowing children
time to talk about something familiar to them both stimulates conversation
and builds confidence in speaking. During a show and tell experience, the
student talks about an activity or shows an object that s/he has brought
to school. Items such as toys, utensils, or pictures of the family can be
used for this activity. Reading skills It is important to make your students
realize that reading is an enjoyable pursuit and an important medium to
increase knowledge. There is no single method to teach reading. A variety
of methods are used to motivate children to become interested in reading |
|
Activities for teaching reading
skills |
|
The "Look-and-Say"method.
Usually teachers begin with the "look-and-say" method which links a word
to a picture. This method allows children to recognize words immediately.
Children will be very excited to find they can "read" almost immediately
and this will motivate them to want to read more! Word recognition is made
easier by choosing words which look very different. For example a child
would not mix up the word "airplane" with the word "orange," especially
if your have a picture next to each word. These two words look very different
even to an inexperienced reader. Make sure when using this method not to
choose words which look very similar, such as words with the same number
of letters and with the same shape. |
|
Using words and ideas which interest
the child. It is important to choose words and ideas which are interesting
to the reader. Find out what the children are interested in and use these
words to teach reading. The learners should be able to identify with the
people and activities about which they are reading |
|
Using phonics to teach reading.
Phonics is the traditional and best known method of teaching reading. It
is probably the way in which you learnt to read yourself. Phonics refers
to recognizing and learning word patterns through constant repetition and
practice. For example, the words "at", "cat", "sat" and "mat" follow a recognizable
phonetic pattern, as do the words "hook", "cook", "book" and "shook." If
you are using the phonic method, use only a few phonic patterns at the beginning.
As the children become confident you can introduce different phonic patterns
and words gradually |
|
Practicing the same words and
word patterns. Begin slowly, using the same words and phonic patterns
at the beginning, and only bring in new words when the children have really
understood the first few words. First, choose a dozen words and make sure
the children know how to recognize these |
|
Cyclic reading. The Cyclic
Reading method is a modern method of teaching reading. It ensures that every
student in the class is given a chance to read to you, at least once a week.
During this period, you are able to teach students individually and monitor
their reading progress by attending to their fluency, comprehension, expression,
and confidence. You are also able to correct on the spot any errors that
your pupils make. The Cyclic Reading is a group work learning activity where
each group is engaged in a different reading exercises. |
|
Writing skills |
|
Learning to write takes time and
effort. It is a task that involves concentration and memory. In the beginning,
children's spelling may be full of errors. Although writing is a difficult
process, all students can learn to write clearly and concisely if they have
consistent, daily practice, and receive adequate support and encouragement.
In this case, teachers must assume the role of motivators and try to make
writing a pleasurable learning activity. |
|
Here are some aspects of teaching
writing that are important to keep in mind: |
|
l Children
learn to write by writing |
l Emphasis
should be placed first on gaining confidence in writing. Children should
have the opportunity to write a lot and |
the teacher should not be overly concerned about "correctness."
|
l Writing
is best taught as one of the language arts with strong emphasis on oral
language as both a foundation and a |
continuing support to writing activities.
|
l The
writing process is as important as the written products students create. |
l
Students improve their writing abilities by listening to and reading the
written works of other students. |
l Student
writers need positive evaluation of their work and appreciation for what
they have accomplished. |
|
Activities for teaching writing
skills |
|
l Picture
diary. Children can draw and write what they did, saw, or heard yesterday/last
week. They can share it with the |
classmates.
|
l Story
ending. Read or show a story to students without finishing it. Ask them
to imagine what has happened in the end and |
write the ending.
|
l Letter
writing. Children can write a letter to you, their friends, parents, schoolhead,
or anyone they like. |
l Book
writing. Students can write a fiction or nonfiction story with pictures.
|
These can be used as a reading material for the students in the same
grade or the grade below.
|
l Report
on site visit/excursion. Students could write what they discovered in science
or social studies class. They could also |
write a report on their visit or about an interview with somebody.
|
|
SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNING |
|
Students today prepare for tomorrow's
reality, in which they will need to function effectively in varied contexts.
These contexts include contacts with people of other languages and cultures,
both in their private lives and in their work. Learning a second language
can help learners to develop the ability to communicate interculturally
and to gain insight into themselves and others. Many linguists believe that
there are maturation constraints to second language acquisition (Krashen,
1982; Johnson, 1989; Long, 1990). This means that complete accuracy in a
second language becomes less likely as the learner grows both physically
and cognitively. Therefore, for learners who will be dependent on good knowledge
of second language in their future, it is important to start learning second
language early on. |
|
Goals for second language learning
|
|
The suggested goals and objectives
must be flexible and attainable by students starting additional language
learning at different times and participating in different programs. The
degree and depth to which students attain these goals and objectives will
be commensurate with the length and quality of instruction. Usually a second
language is introduced orally first, with reading and writing added as students
become more proficient in reading and writing in their mother tongue. Following
are examples of possible expectations, based on second language instruction
of three to five lessons a week: |
|
interact orally on familiar topics |
comprehend main ideas in a wide variety
of everyday communication |
read, comprehend, and use simple
written material |
use second language to obtain, construct,
and provide information in simple spoken and written form |
|
Appropriate Topics |
|
Learners in this age range begin
with content topics close to the self, the home, and the school. These can
include family, friends, home and house, animals, and health. As they learn
counting, days, dates, months, and alphabet in a second language, these
can be simultaneously incorporated into the curriculum. Colors, shapes,
vehicles, weather, culturally significant foods, festivals, holidays, all
can be made part of the content as these become part of the background knowledge
of the primary school learner. Age appropriate children's literature, myths,
arts, music, and games are essential content components, as well. Older
primary learners are ready to use the vocabulary of geography, symbols and
signs, daily routines, feelings, and topics from their studies in other
areas such as science, mathematics, and social studies. |
|
Grade
One - OBJECTIVES FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING |
|
At the first level of second language
learning, the focus should be on listening and speaking skills, with reading
and writing added as students become more proficient in reading and writing
in their mother tongue. Following are examples of possible expectations,
based on second language instruction of three to five lessons a week. |
|
Listening |
|
l identify
spoken words and phrases relating to pictures and actions |
l understand
basic instructions |
l follow
simple oral directions |
|
Speaking |
|
l recite
the alphabet |
l introduce
and respond to introductions |
l greet,
thank, ask for permission |
l name
basic colors, parts of the body, and common objects found in home and learning
environment |
l answer
personal questions in simple sentences (e.g. name and age) |
l count
1-100 |
|
Reading |
|
match labels with pictures |
recognize second language letters/symbols |
distinguish the names and sounds
of letters/symbols |
|
Writing |
|
l copy
letters and words written in the second language |
l
write letters and simple words (e.g. name) |
|
Grade
Two: OBJECTIVES FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Level One to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
At the end of the second level of
schooling, the students will be able to: |
|
Listening |
|
understand and follow basic instructions |
understand familiar questions and
commands |
understand introductions, greetings,
numbers, and expressions of times, dates and weather |
understand complete sentences |
listen to simple songs and poems |
|
Speaking |
|
have control of a limited number
of sentences and phrases |
respond to familiar questions and
commands (e.g. introductions, greetings, expressions of time, dates, and
weather) |
use appropriate vocabulary to express
limited personal needs |
ask and respond to yes/no and simple
information questions |
|
Reading |
|
read simple notices and signs |
read phrases and sentences |
|
Writing |
|
copy familiar words or phrases and
write some from memory |
write simple words and sentences
(name, address) |
|
Grade
Three: OBJECTIVES FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Level Two to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
At the end of the third level of
schooling, the students will be able to: |
|
Listening |
|
comprehend short conversations/stories
on familiar topics (e.g. home, school, etc.) |
comprehend the main ideas and some
supporting detail in simple conversations/stories |
understand yes/no and information
questions on a familiar topics |
recognize the multiple ways in which
an idea can be expressed in the foreign language |
|
Speaking |
|
speak in complete sentences |
describe people, places, and events
in lengthier, connected utterances |
engage in a simple conversation by
putting 2-3 sentences in complete thoughts |
express opinions and basic emotions |
ask informational questions for personal
reasons |
respond to questions in more detail |
recite poems or songs aloud or to
oneself |
|
Reading |
|
read more sophisticated phrases,
sentences, signs, and notices |
begin reading short paragraphs |
make use of contextual guessing
to strengthen vocabulary skills |
|
Writing |
|
understand and interpret written
language on familiar topics |
write simple sentences |
|
Some suggestions for second language
teaching |
|
As a teacher, you must ask and answer
questions all of the time; some of them will be well thought out and planned,
like curricula and lesson plans, while others will be made on a moments
notice, based mostly on a teacher's instinct and experience. Some examples
are: What are the objectives of second language instruction in my class
and in my school? At what level are students now? At what levels should
they be in 1 year? 2 years? five years? What resources do I have? What are
my strengths and weaknesses? What are my students' strengths and weaknesses?
Which methodology will most effectively address these considerations? What
kinds of assignments are my students capable of completing? What resources
do they bring to the classroom? There is no single correct answer to questions
like these - there is no magical solution to language teaching and learning.
Each teacher has to answer these questions himself or herself. However,
a teacher informed about second language teaching methodology and pedagogical
theory will be able to make better decisions with regard to these important
questions. The purpose of this section is to provide information about some
methods for teaching second language. These methods were chosen for three
reasons: (1) they are the most appropriate approaches for beginning learners
in the lower elementary grades; (2) they are currently used around the world
by professionally trained second language teachers; and (3) they are based
on scholarly research and theory. They include: |
|
l the
direct method |
l the
audio-lingual method |
l the
total physical response (TPR) method |
l the
communicative approach |
|
Although these methods are appropriate
for all beginning second language students, they are particularly suitable
for early elementary learners beginning to study a second language. They
are based on communicative, cooperative, and interactive activities that
can motivate and empower children. As students progress in their second
language acquisition, teachers can introduce more whole language (reading)
and higher level communicative teaching approaches. Once students have mastered
the speaking and listening objectives written for primary grades and felt
the confidence that comes with that mastery, grammar, its related structural
components, and organizational writing instruction should begin in order
to supplement and enhance these skills that students have already learned.
This grammar and extended writing instruction usually begins in the upper
elementary grades, providing students are prepared for and capable of completing
the associated tasks and objectives. |
|
Remember! Teaching methodology should
be eclectic and flexible, fitting the specific yet varied learning needs,
resources, and skills of students and the environments and conditions in
which they are learning. |
|
The
direct method |
|
The direct method is not new. Its
principles have been applied by language teachers for many years. Most recently,
it was revived by teachers who intend that students learn how to communicate
in the second language. Since the grammar-based methods were not very effective
in preparing students to use second language communicatively, the direct
method became popular. |
|
The direct method has one basic rule:
No translation is allowed. In fact, the direct method receives its name
from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language,
without going through the process of translating into the students' native
language. In order to do this successfully, students should learn to think
in the target language. Some principles of the direct method include: |
|
l When
teacher introduces a new foreign language word or phrase, s/he demonstrates
its meaning through the use of realia, |
pictures, or pantomime.
|
l Vocabulary
is emphasized over grammar. |
l
Students communicate as if they were in real situations. |
l Grammar
is taught inductively; that is, the students are presented with examples
and they figure out the rules or |
generalization from the examples.
|
|
Teaching techniques and activities |
|
Reading aloud. Students take
turns reading sections of a text aloud. At the end of each students' turn,
the teacher uses gestures, pictures, examples, or other means to make the
meaning of the section clear. |
|
Question and answer exercise.
This exercise is conducted only in the foreign language. Students are asked
questions and answer in full sentences so that they practice with new words
and grammatical structures. · Conversation practice. The teacher asks students
a number of questions in the target language, which the students have to
understand to be able to answer correctly. For example, the teacher may
ask individual students questions about themselves. |
|
Fill-in-the-blank. This techniques
has already been discussed in grammar-translation method, but differs in
its application in the direct method. All the items are in the foreign language. |
|
Dictation. The teacher read
the passage three times. The first time the teacher read it at a normal
speed, while the students just listen. The second time s/he read the passage
phrase by phrase, pausing long enough to allow students to write down what
they have heard. The last time the teacher again reads at a normal speed,
and students check their work. |
|
Audio-lingual
method |
|
The audio-lingual method, like the
direct method we have just examined, has a goal to teach students to use
the second language communicatively. The fundamental principle of the audio-lingual
method is that learning of a second language should be the same as the acquisition
of the mother tongue. In order to do this, students need to learn to use
second language automatically without stopping to think. Some characteristics
of the teaching/learning process include: |
|
l The
speaking and listening skills receive most of the attention. |
l New
vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues |
l The
dialogues are learned through imitation and repetition. |
l Students'
successful responses are positively reinforced. |
l Grammar
is learned from examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided. |
|
Teaching techniques and activities |
|
Dialogue memorization. Dialogues
or short conversation between two people are often used to begin a new lesson.
Students memorize the dialogue through mimicry. Students usually take the
role of one person in the dialogue, and the teacher the other. After the
students have learned the one person's lines, they switch roles and memorize
the other person's part. Another way to practice the two roles is for half
of the class to take one role and the other half to take the other. After
the dialogue has been memorized, pairs of individual students might perform
the dialogue for the rest of the class. |
|
Repetition drill. Students
are asked to repeat the teachers' model as accurately as possible. This
drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialogue. |
|
Chain drill. A chain drill
gets its name form the chain of conversation that forms around as students,
one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the
chain by greeting a particular students, or asking him/her a question. That
student responds, then turns to the student sitting next to him. The first
student greets or asks a question of the second student and the chain continues. |
|
Transformation drill. The
teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence, for example an affirmative
sentence. Students are asked to transform this sentence into a negative
sentence. |
|
Question-and-answer drill.
This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students
should answer the teacher's question very quickly. |
|
Completing the dialogue. Selected
words are erased from a dialogue students learned. Students complete the
dialogue by filling in the blanks with the missing words. |
|
The total physical response |
|
The total physical response method
is an example of a new general approach to language instruction which has
been named "the comprehensive approach." It is called this because of the
importance it gives to listening comprehension. Unlike most of the previous
methods we have considered, comprehensive approaches begin with the listening
skill. |
|
The idea of focusing on listening
comprehension during early second language instruction comes from observing
how children acquire their mother tongue. A baby spends many months listening
to the people around it long before it ever says a word. The child has the
time to try to make sense out of the sounds it hears. The child chooses
to speak when it is ready. The same principles are used in the total physical
response method. Some of the characteristics include: |
|
l Listening
comprehension skills receive the most attention. |
l The
first part of a lesson is one of modeling. The instructor issues commands
to a few students, then performs the actions |
with them. In the second phase, these same students demonstrate that
they can understand the commands by
|
performing them alone
|
l After
learning to respond to some oral commands, the students learn to read and
write them. When students are ready to |
speak, they become the ones who issue the commands.
|
l Activities
include games. |
|
Teaching techniques and activities |
|
Using commands to direct behavior.
The use of commands is the major teaching technique of the total physical
response method. One reasons for the use of commands is their frequency
of occurrence in the speech directed at young children learning their mother
tongue. The commands are given to get students to perform actions; the action
makes the meaning of the command clear. It is necessary for a teacher to
plan in advance which commands s/he will introduce in a lesson in order
to keep a lively pace. |
|
Role reversal. Students command
their teacher and classmates to perform some actions. It is believed (Larsen-Freeman,
1989) that students will want to speak after ten to twenty hours of instruction,
although some students may take longer. Students should not be encouraged
to speak until they are ready. |
|
Action sequence. As the students
learn more and more of the second language, a longer series of connected
commands can be given, which together comprise a whole procedure. For example,
students might receive the following instructions: Take out a pen. Take
out a piece of paper. Write a letter (imaginary). Fold the letter. Put in
the envelope. Seal the envelope. Write the address on the envelope. |
|
The communicative approach |
|
The goal of the communicative approach
is to enable students to use second language communicatively. While this
has been the stated goal of many of the other methods, the notion of what
it takes to be communicatively competent is much expanded in the communicative
approach. In addition to teaching linguistic structures and vocabulary,
communicative competence involves being able to use the language appropriate
in a given social context. Students must be able to apply second language
in negotiating meaning. It is through the interaction with between speaker
and listener that meaning becomes clear. Some obvious characteristics of
communicative approach include: |
|
l Almost
everything that is done is done with a communicative intent. Students use
second language a lot through |
communicative activities, such as games, role-plays, and problem-solving.
|
l Learning
activities have three features: information gap, choice, and feedback. |
l If
possible, authentic materials should be used. It is considered desirable
to give students an opportunity to develop |
strategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native
speakers
|
l Learning
activities are often carried out by students in small groups. Small numbers
of students interacting are favored in |
order to maximize the time allotted to each student for learning to
negotiate meaning.
|
|
Teaching techniques and activities |
|
Authentic materials. To overcome
the typical problem that students cannot transfer what they learn in the
classroom to the outside world and to expose students to natural language
in a variety of situations, communicative approach advocates the use of
authentic materials. The following authentic materials can be used for learning:
menus, timetables, radio, newspapers in the target language. |
|
Scrambled sentences. The students
are given a text in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. They are
told to unscramble the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their
original order. This type of activity teaches students how sentences are
bound together through formal linguistic devices. In addition to written
texts, students may also be asked to unscramble the lines of a mixed-up
dialogue. |
|
Language games. Language games
are used frequently in the communicative method. The students find them
enjoyable, and if they are properly designed, they give students valuable
communicative practice. |
|
Picture strip story. Many
activities can be done with picture strip story. For example, students may
be asked to put pictures of a picture strip story in order and write lines
to accompany the story. This gives students practice in negotiating meaning. |
|
Role play. Role plays are
very effective in communicative method because they give student an opportunity
to practice communicating in different social contexts and roles. |
|
MATHEMATICS
|
|
Mathematics is a universal language
of numbers. It is used in all cultures and it is about relationships and
creativity. It brings joy in discovery and satisfaction in mastery. Mathematical
power is achieved as students learn how to follow logical steps in order
to solve problems and make connections. Creating meaning from numbers requires
skill and patience. This curriculum guide provides suggestions for progression
through the various content areas of math. Most people feel that mathematics
is difficult and removed from everyday life. Teachers should attempt to
teach mathematical skills that are relevant to students' needs and that
will help them later in life. |
|
Goals for mathematics learning |
|
As a result of their primary schooling,
students will be able to: |
|
l add,
subtract, multiply, and divide using whole numbers, fractions, and decimals |
l make
and use measurements, including length, width, weight, area, and volume |
l identify,
analyze, and solve problems using algebraic equations, inequalities, and
graphs |
l understand
and apply shapes and relations between lines in a variety of ways (squares,
circles, triangles, angles, etc.) |
l
use mathematics skills to estimate and predict outcomes |
|
The topics below are included in
grades 1 through 3: |
|
l Numbers |
l Patterns |
l Relations |
l Shapes |
l
Measurement and Estimates |
l Fractions
and Decimals |
|
Remember! There is no one right
way to solve a problem! Children learn mathematics in a variety of ways,
and come to the answer in different ways -- this is okay, as long as the
child can explain the logic of his or her thinking! |
|
Grade
One - OBJECTIVES FOR MATHEMATICS LEARNING |
At the end of the first grade, students
will be able to: |
|
Numbers |
l exhibit
pre-number skills (sorting objects into groups, etc.) |
l identify
a whole number and be able to describe it in words |
l recognize
and write numbers 0-9 |
l add
and subtract single digit numbers |
l differentiate
between even numbers and odd numbers |
|
|
Patterns |
Visual Patterns |
l copy
the pattern |
l
identify the core of the pattern (that part that stays the same and forms
the basis of the pattern -- e.g., in ABABAB, AB is |
the core)
|
l
recognize repeating patterns (a sequence of numbers or images that repeat
in the same manner -- e.g., in ABABABAB, |
the core, AB repeats without changing)
|
l recognize
growing patterns (a sequence of numbers or images that grows with each repetition
-- e.g., in |
ABABBABBBABBBB, with each repetition, one more B is added)
|
l describe
the pattern in words |
l predict
a pattern |
l extend
the pattern |
l
create their own pattern |
|
Movement patterns |
|
imitate movement patterns (e.g.,
clap hands, stomp feet, clap hands, stomp feet) |
describe the pattern in words |
recognize repeating patterns |
recognize growing patterns |
create their own movement pattern
|
|
Relations |
l recognize
relationships between numbers as "the same as" |
l recognize
relationships between numbers as "different from" |
l recognize
when a number is "greater than" another number |
l
recognize when a number is "less than" another number |
|
Shapes |
l draw
shapes |
l describe
shapes |
|
Measurement and Estimates |
l measure
units of length and width |
l weigh
units of mass |
|
Grade
Two - OBJECTIVES FOR MATHEMATICS LEARNING |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade One to make sure students understand the "old"
material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
At the end of the second grade students
will be able to: |
|
Numbers |
l count
to 100 |
l understand
and do basic counting and grouping |
l add
and subtract single double and triple digit numbers |
l understand
place values |
l
have a sense of the size of numbers |
|
Shapes |
l understand
the concept of angles |
|
Measurement and Estimates |
l read
the time on an analogue clock (the teacher may have to create a clock out
of paper) |
l understand
weight and height |
l determine
when an estimate is appropriate and/or useful |
l make
and use estimates when working with quantities and measurement |
|
Fractions and Decimals |
l be
able to differentiate between whole numbers and fractions |
l understand
fractions using both shapes (e.g., a circle divided into parts) and numbers
(e.g., 1/2, 1/3, 3/5, etc.) |
|
Grade Three - OBJECTIVES FOR MATHEMATICS LEARNING |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade Two to make sure students understand the "old"
material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
At the end of the third grade of
schooling, the students will be able to: |
|
Numbers |
l take
real-life situations and translate them into statements using numbers |
l multiply
single and double digit numbers |
l divide
single and double digit numbers |
l know
when to use addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division |
|
Shapes |
l understand
more complicated two-dimensional shapes (e.g., octagon) |
l draw
and conceptualize three-dimensional shapes (e.g., box) |
|
Measurement and Estimates |
l compute
area and volume |
l estimate
area and volume |
l
understand, use, and create calendars |
l understand
direction (north, south, east, west, left, right, vertical, horizontal) |
l
understand and estimate distance |
(The last two objectives can be integrated
with social studies.) |
|
Fractions and Decimals |
l add
and subtract decimals |
l handle
small amounts of money |
l do
simple calculations mentally |
|
SCIENCE |
Science and young children naturally
belong together. They are full of curiosity and want to know: why? how?
what? what for? what is it made of? how does it work? Teaching science can
enhance childrens' knowledge and awareness of the world by providing opportunities
which require them to to learn to predict, collect, analyze, and categorize
data. These investigative procedures allow for the development of reasoning
abilities that can have practical application in daily life. |
|
As a result of their primary schooling,
students will be able to: |
|
Demonstrate an understanding of the
inter-relatedness of matter and energy |
Demonstrate the ability to make
responsible and caring choices about their environment |
Demonstrate an understanding of the
composition and structure of the universe and motions of the objects within
it |
Demonstrate a knowledge of the characteristics
of life, their relationship to each other, and to their environment |
|
The following topics have been identified
as being essential to achieving these goals: |
Scientific inquiry |
Matter and energy |
Force and motion |
The universe |
Earth processes |
Ecology |
Living systems |
|
The following are critical science
process skills that students are expected to acquire as they proceed through
the grades: |
|
1. Observing. Eyes, fingers,
nose and ears all help with observing. Observing involves careful looking
and seeing small parts as well as the whole. By shutting the eyes, other
senses, such as hearing, smell and touch are heightened. Insisting on silence
also helps students to concentrate on their senses. |
|
2. Describing and Recording.
Describing involves telling about things. It helps to extend vocabulary.
Recording enables describing to be captured and retained. Ways of recording
involve drawing and pasting, making collages and charts by cutting out pictures
or drawing and pasting these onto a piece of cardboard or paper. |
|
3. Comparing. Comparing involves
finding things that are the same as well as different about two objects,
for example: "In what way is a goat the same as a chicken?" "In what way
is a goat different to a chicken?" Objects which are compared usually share
a common feature or function. |
|
4. Collecting and Sorting.
Objects of like kind are collected, for example, stones, seeds, leaves or
other items might be collected. Sorting collections follows a criterion
or reason. Sorting creates order out of collections. Sorting may lead to
a sequence, e.g., largest to smallest. |
|
5. Measuring. Measuring involves
introducing concepts of space occupied, length and shape. The idea of a
shape changing is introduced. Measurements are made in string lengths or
outlines of area. |
|
6. Investigating. To find
out about something, questions must be asked. Observation and comparison
are used. Something is done to an object, for example, an object might be
cut open or it might be added to something else. Investigating is finding
out about the properties of things and extending the idea of what something
looks like. |
|
7. Predicting. Predicting
involves looking ahead and asking what will happen. Predictions are sensible
and reasonable guesses, based on a known situation. Predicting demands visualizing
and reasoning. |
|
8. Manipulating. Body coordination,
particularly of hands and fingers is developed through practicing tasks
such as pouring, cutting out, tracing, coloring, marking letters, gluing,
mixing and sorting. Manipulating small objects is a skill which provides
opportunity for care, observation and attention to detail. These qualities
are needed for science and for growing into a well coordinated person. |
|
Grade
One - LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR SCIENCE |
First grade students will be introduced
to various concepts of science. These concepts can be taken from the following
major science topics: scientific inquiry, matter and energy, the universe,
earth processes, ecology, and living systems. |
|
Upon completion of this course, students
will be able to do the following: |
|
Scientific inquiry |
l Predict
heavier/lighter |
l Predict
more/less |
|
Matter and energy |
Describe objects according to the
properties of length, height, width, weight. |
|
The universe |
Recognize the sun as a star and the
earth's source of heat and light |
|
Earth processes |
Identify the four seasons and the
changes that occur |
Recognize the day-to-day weather
changes and name the conditions such as sunny, cloudy, partly cloudy, rainy,
snowy, and |
foggy |
|
Ecology |
Recognize living and non-living
things |
Identify basic needs of plants and
animals |
Describe ways to protect plants and
animals |
|
Living systems |
|
l Identify
roots, stems, flowers, fruits, cones, and seeds |
l Recognize
the characteristics and needs of plants |
l Recognize
that people use plants and plant products |
l Classify
animals by how they move |
l Identify
special body parts that help animals move |
l Recognize
that animals must get their own food in order to eat |
|
Grade
Two - LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR SCIENCE |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade One to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
In second grade science, students
will gain knowledge in the areas of living systems, earth processes, force
and motion, matter and energy, and scientific inquiry. Emphasis is placed
on observation and inference of information at this level. |
|
Upon completion of this course, students
will be able to do the following: |
|
Scientific inquiry |
l
Distinguish living from non-living things |
l Classify
according to general characteristics |
|
Matter and energy |
l Observe
examples of solids, liquids, and gasses |
l Classify
small objects as being greater than, less than, or equal to the mass of
a given standard |
|
Force and motion |
l Observe
and describe the distance an object travels when force is applied. |
|
Earth processes |
l Classify
seasonal activities according to the four seasons |
l Infer
what to wear based on weather data |
|
Living systems |
|
l Identify
the sensory organs of the human body |
l Identify
the major parts of a plant |
l Observe
and identify what plants and animals do to prepare for a new season |
l Identify
the best conditions for growth and development of different plants and animals |
|
Grade
Three: LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR SCIENCE |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade Two to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
In third grade science, children
will gain knowledge in the areas of scientific inquiry, matter, forces and
motion, the earth processes, the universe, ecology and living systems. Students
will learn about types of organisms and their habitats. Third graders will
also learn how natural and human intervention affects the environment. |
|
Upon completion of this course, students
will be able to do the following: |
|
Scientific inquiry |
l Observe
and identify the proper scientific tool used in measuring distance, volume,
or weight |
|
Matter and energy |
l Predict
the changes in matter as an object is heated or cooled |
l
Distinguish among evaporating, condensing, melting and freezing |
|
Force and motion |
l Predict
the direction an object will move when it is pushed or pulled |
|
The universe |
l Distinguish
between natural and man-made objects in the sky, water, or earth |
|
Earth processes |
Observe that the length of a shadow
produced by the sun changes during the school day |
Predict the changes in landform surfaces
due to wind, water, and land usage |
|
Ecology |
Order various animals/plants according
to their sequence of growth and development |
|
Living systems |
Describe the ways in which a population
of organisms can become endangered |
Predict the best conditions for seed
germination and growth |
|
Some suggestions for teaching
science |
|
Various methods of instruction are
used by the science teachers. However, at the primary levels a heavy emphasis
is placed on the hands-on experiential approach to science. This involves
problem identification and problem solving using the environment. The hands-on
approach encourages curiosity which leads to logical and systematic questioning
of students. Therefore, science should be taught by carrying out experiments,
making observations, recording observations, and analyzing your findings.
Learning groups are used as an effective teaching strategy to develop problem
solving skills. |
|
Teaching Hints |
Allow enough time for doing practical
things, discussing, recording, and cleaning up |
Plan ahead of time. Have weekly,
monthly and term plans. Collect materials to be used ahead of time |
Use open-ended questions to encourage
thinking and develop students' confidence |
Try to ask activity-oriented questions
that motivate children to do something. For example, "How could we find
out about |
this?" |
· Avoid lecturing to the class all
the time |
|
|
SOCIAL STUDIES |
Topics in Social Studies provide
the information and methods for children to become aware of their place
in the world and in time. Through Social Studies that students learn about
history and can make observations about the past, present and future. Through
Social Studies, students gain a sense of belonging to their community and
begin to understand how their community functions politically, economically
and socially. Social Studies teach children skills for effective conflict
management, how to relate to others in their community, and how to participate
in civic life. |
|
Further, Social Studies should help
teach students how to become functional citizens, developing skills for
self-fulfillment and eventual betterment of society at large. Social Studies
focuses on human interaction with the physical and social environment, and
should teach students about the interrelatedness of communities within their
country as well as between countries around the world. Concern for the delicate
balance between population and the conservation of natural environmental
resources should be cultivated. Finally, problem-solving and decision-making
skills learned in Social Studies should help children become effective,
responsible citizens. |
|
Goals for social studies learning
|
|
The goals for the primary school
years in the Edukit are formed around a growing circle of knowledge, beginning
with the self and family, moving on to school and neighborhood, then to
region, country and world. The idea is that as students learn about their
own place in their family and learn about roles in the family, they will
be more ready to learn about school and their immediate society (i.e., how
all the families in the neighborhood function together), and further how
their region and country are interconnected with the rest of the world.
|
|
SELF and FAMILY |
SCHOOL and NEIGHBORHOOD |
REGION and COUNTRY |
WORLD |
|
As a result of their primary schooling,
students should be able to: |
|
l
define and understand the roles of the members of their family and know
the position of their home in their village |
or town
|
l
name and understand the function of the various buildings in their village
or town |
l
demonstrate knowledge of the major events, persons, holidays, social and
political movements and institutions in |
their local community and in their country
|
l
understand aspects of culture and authority in the community, and describe
the various ethnic, racial, and/or |
religious groups found in the community and/or the region
|
l
understand modes of communication and transportation in the local community
as well as the country and the |
world
|
l
demonstrate knowledge of the local economy (i.e., how people make a living),
identify the major economic |
activities carried out during the different seasons of the year,
and identify the local natural resources and what they are used for
|
l
demonstrate knowledge of world geography, major events, and personalities
in world history |
l
learn knowledge and skills in conflict management, in order to apply them
to real life situations in order to |
collaborate on problem-solving and decision-making
|
|
The following topics are included
in grades 1 through 3: |
|
l
History |
l Geography |
l Economics |
l
Civics and Government |
l Conflict
Management |
|
Grade
One - OBJECTIVES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES LEARNING |
|
Self and Family: objectives in this
section will use content based primarily on family experience and location
as well as participation in family functions and roles. |
|
At the end of the first grade, students
will be able to: |
|
History |
l identify
characters within a story |
l understand
the chronology (i.e., the order of events) of a story |
l memorize
simple historical poetry or songs |
|
Geography |
l identify
the setting in a story |
l
learn about their homes and the different spaces inside or outside of the
home (i.e., sleeping space, cooking space, etc.) |
l be
active observers of their environment (i.e., notice regular patterns such
as day/night and seasons, notice topography |
such as hills, flatlands, water, sky)
|
l identify
the effects of time and seasonal changes on work and play activities |
|
Economics |
l notice
basic needs of people, such as food, clothing, and shelter |
l notice
family needs (chores, eating, etc.) and the family "economy" (i.e., how
they meet those needs through the tasks of |
each family member)
|
l differentiate
between food bought and food grown |
|
Civics and Government |
l identify
rules that govern their family and home |
l recognize
and understand the need for following rules of conduct at home and at school
|
l notice
how responsibility is shared among their family members |
l recognize
how they participate in the functions and their tasks of their family and
understand their responsibility to their |
family members
|
l name
the means of entertainment in their families/community |
|
Conflict
Management |
learn and practice rules of communication
with other persons (i.e., courtesy, consideration) |
learn to be and practice being cooperative
with other students and family members |
|
Grade
Two - OBJECTIVES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES LEARNING |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade One to make sure students understand and remember
the "old" material before moving on to more complex material. |
|
School and neighborhood: the objectives
in grade two will grow to encompass not only self and family, but also aspects
of school and neighborhood/community. |
|
At the end of the second grade students
will be able to: |
|
History |
l have
a sense of time ("now" and "in the past") |
l begin
to understand historical time lines, particularly of their own lives (i.e.,
when they were born, when they started |
school, etc.)
|
l begin
to understand cause and effect |
l memorize
small parts of historically significant documents or speeches |
|
Geography |
l take
and practice leading student tours of school grounds, local buildings, farms,
etc |
l take
"environment observation" tours and record what they see (i.e., plants,
animals, etc.) |
l
notice the effect of geography on how people in their community live (i.e.,
where they live, the food they eat, etc.) |
l draw
"maps" of their school area, home, or neighborhood/community |
l describe
and compare different means of transportation in their community |
|
Economics |
l notice
local resources -- plentiful and scarce -- that satisfy people's needs |
l recognize
the community "economy" (i.e., mutual assistance and exchange) |
l identify
local businesses (i.e., what store or what person sells or buys what goods
or services) |
|
Civics and Government |
l share
responsibility with other students for classroom activities and chores |
l begin
to work in groups with defined tasks |
l from
stories and myths, notice qualities of character that are positive and negative
|
l begin
to learn what majority-rules decisions are, and learn how it feels to abide
by a majority-rules decision both when |
they are in the majority and in the minority
|
l begin
to understand how the local community government functions (i.e., town council,
mayor, etc.) |
l begin
to learn about local laws and community rules |
|
Conflict Management |
l learn
to show respect and concern for other school mates, family members, and
community members |
l begin
to understand feelings, emotions, and empathy |
l practice
listening skills |
|
Grade
Three - OBJECTIVES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES LEARNING |
During Grade Three, some time
should be spent reviewing what was learned in Grades One and Two to make
sure students understand and remember the "old" material before moving on
to more complex material. |
|
Region, country, and world:the
objectives in grade three incorporate an increasing context, to include
aspects of the students' locality, their country and even the world. |
|
At the end of the third grade of
schooling, the students will be able to: |
|
History |
l identify
important major events by historical time period |
l construct
time lines for their region's or country's history |
l narrate
folklore stories related to their community, region, or country |
l
describe aspects of their community's or country's culture (art, music,
dance, dress, etc.) |
|
Geography |
l learn
basic global features such as oceans, continents, poles, equator |
l identify
major rivers, mountains, etc. in their country and/or in the world |
l make
simple maps on paper and relief maps (using, for example, clay for mountains,
and leaves for forests) |
l
practice memorization of basic global, continental, and nation-state shapes
and features |
|
Economics |
l recognize
the nature of trade and exchange on a multi-community and/or international
scale |
l discuss
or identify the global distribution of natural resources and/or monetary
resources |
|
Civics and Government |
l begin
to assume leadership for specific class responsibilities (i.e., rotating
class president) |
l participate
in some all-class decisions and abide by majority decisions |
l begin
to distinguish between acting justly, for the common good, or selfishly |
l
begin to understand that rules of conduct are connected to laws which secure
human rights and confer civic responsibilities |
|
Conflict Management |
be able to describe conflicts and
their resolutions |
understand that conflicts can be
resolved violently or constructively |
|
Some suggestions for teaching
social studies |
For many teachers, teaching Social
Studies can be very daunting and challenging. New teachers should rely heavily
on local community leaders, and older members and grandparents in the community
to assist them. Local leaders can talk to students about their jobs as mayor,
religious leader, etc., and elders can tell stories about their own lives
and give their own opinions about history, specifically the history of their
community. Stories can be routinely told out loud, and the teacher should
encourage the children to use new words. Often, language arts can be integrated
with history or geography, and teachers should try to use the same texts
or stories for a variety of subjects. |
|
The learning material in Social Studies
is well suited to the following four approaches to teaching (Botswana Primary
School Syllabus): |
|
l
Integration: the various topics (history, geography, etc.) can be integrated
and taught together for a meaningful and |
interesting learning experience
|
l Inquiry:
students should be encouraged to find answers for themselves, with the teacher
providing guidance. The students |
can state problems and then develop concepts and skills to address
those problems
|
l Problem-solving/Decision-making:
students should be given the chance to become involved in their day to day
|
problems and suggest how best to find possible solutions under the
guidance of the teacher
|
l Personal/Local
experience: wherever possible, the student should be given the opportunity
to use personal knowledge |
or experience to solve problems, and local problems or situations should
be used as examples.
|
|
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS
|
The concepts of ownership
|
The concepts of ownership and property
are important parts of a Social Studies curriculum. They are not included
above, however because they vary from country to country and region to region
-- even household to household. Different cultures and different legal systems
differ greatly as to what is considered "property" and who in the country
or region is allowed to "own" it. Property can be clothing or land, but
also thoughts and opinions. People everywhere have a sense of self-expression
and need an outlet for this expression. Many use different types of "property"
as forms of expression and as a way to show their preferences. It is important
that people are aware of others' forms of expression and should respect
the "property" of others. These concepts should be discussed in school,
but teachers should use his or her own discretion as to whether they are
discussed in the context of family life, community life, or national life. |
|
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS
|
Conflict management lessons
|
It is important in Social Studies,
and specifically in conflict management lessons, that the teacher practice
non-threatening communication. The teacher should consistently set the example
of positive communication by using some of the following suggested responses
to problem situations: |
|
When someone... |
Instead of... |
Try... |
calls you a name |
name-calling back |
I don't like it when you call me a name. Do you want
to tell me what's wrong? |
calls your family member a name |
name-calling back |
I feel angry when you call [my mother] a name. If I
did something to make you mad, please tell me. |
pushes you |
pushing back |
I don't like being pushed. Please stop. |
tells a lie about you |
telling a lie about them |
I feel bad when you say things about me that aren't
true. Please tell me why you're angry. |
|
*Remember to try to use the other
person's name when addressing them. Using someone's name shows respect and
opens communication. |
From: Fran Schmidt & Alice
Friedman (1985). Creative Conflict Solving for Kids. Peace Works. |
|
|
HEALTH,
NUTRITION, AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT |
The healthy, physically active child
is more likely to be academically motivated, alert, and successful. The
health education curriculum strives to enable students to make responsible
decisions and provide them with the knowledge to lead a healthy lifestyle.
The health curriculum is presented in a manner that will enable students
to develop a positive self concept with concern for the health and safety
of oneself and others, develop decision-making skills which will assure
healthful consequences, develop an appreciation and enjoyment in activities
which will assure physical development and maintenance, and develop positive
health habits and self-directed life style that will promote a desirable
set of values. |
|
Upon completion of three years of
primary education, students will be able to: |
|
l
Identify health issues, needs, and problems facing individuals and society |
l Identify
the causes and effects of some disease and health problems |
l Recognize
some prevention and control techniques |
l Recognize
the importance of personal hygiene |
l Develop
positive self-worth |
l Develop
a concern for health and safety of oneself and others |
l Participate
in physical training |
|
In order to achieve these goals,
the health curriculum can utilizes the following topics: |
|
l
Personal hygiene |
l Nutrition
Safety and first aid |
l Human
growth and development |
l Physical
training |
|
Grade
One - OBJECTIVES FOR HEALTH, NUTRITION, & PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT |
At the first grade level the emphasis
will be on introducing the student to personal safety, proper eating habits,
proper hygiene, and communication skills in reporting abuse or emergencies. |
|
Upon completion of this course, students
will be able to do the following: |
|
Personal hygiene |
l Learn
the importance of hand washing and its relationship to disease control |
l Learn
the importance of personal cleanliness (e.g. regular bathing, clean clothes,
etc.) |
l Learn
toilet hygiene |
l
Identify the roles of the doctor and nurse in the community |
|
Nutrition |
l Recognize
the importance of clean water and food |
l Identify
types and names of common local foods |
|
Safety and first aid |
l Learn
rules of safety (fire, tornado, earthquake, landmines, bombing, etc.) |
l Report
emergency situations to adults |
|
Human growth and development |
l
Identify the five senses and how they are important |
l Identify
and name major body organs (e.g. heart, lungs, brain, eyes, nose, ears,
etc.) |
|
Physical training |
l Actively
participate in physical fitness exercises and activities |
l Recognize
that physical fitness activities are good for personal well-being and are
a component of healthy living |
l Perform
basic locomotion skills such as walking, running, skipping, sliding, hopping,
swimming (if possible), and dancing |
l Recognize
that skill development requires practice |
l Participate
in games, sports, rhythms and outdoor pursuits based on individual interest
and capabilities |
|
Grade
Two - OBJECTIVES FOR HEALTH, NUTRITION, & PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade One to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. At the second
grade level the emphasis will be on learning healthy eating habits, personal
cleanliness, and physical training. |
|
Upon completion of this course, students
will be able to do the following: |
|
Personal hygiene |
l Recognize
the importance of cleanliness |
l Understand
the care of skin, teeth, hair, etc. |
l Know
when to see a doctor |
|
Nutrition |
l Recognize
the benefits of healthy eating |
l Classify
foods into different groups using their own criteria |
l Demonstrate
proper handling of foods and protecting it from contamination |
l Identify
the main sources of clean water in the local environment |
|
Safety and first aid |
l Learn
personal and school safety rules (fire, tornado, earthquake, landmines,
bombing, etc.) |
l Visit
the local health center |
l Recognize
dangerous animals (e.g. poisonous snakes, lizards, insects, etc.) |
|
Human growth and development |
l Know
your own body (e.g. blood, skeleton, excretion, digestion) |
l Describe
body organs and their function |
|
Physical development |
l Demonstrate
strength, flexibility, and cardiovascular endurance in physical fitness
activities |
l Chase,
flee, and dodge to avoid or catch others in activities |
l Perform
basic balance and coordination skills in activities |
l Demonstrate
an ability in the fundamentals of throwing, catching, striking, and kicking
balls |
l Perform
in activities with a partner, small groups, whole classes and individually
that promote all levels of participation in |
sport skills, games, and recreation.
|
|
Level
Three - OBJECTIVES FOR HEALTH, NUTRITION & PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT |
Some time should be spent reviewing
what was learned in Grade Two to make sure that students understand the
"old" material before moving on to more complex material. At the third grade
level the emphasis will be on nutritional components of food, the major
organs of the digestive system, and how proper dental care aids in digestion. |
|
Upon completion of this course, students
will be able to do the following: |
|
Personal hygiene |
l Know
proper dental care and it's relevance to good digestion |
l Recognize
diseases that come from the lack of cleanliness |
|
Nutrition |
l Describe
when and what kind of food they eat at different times of the day |
l
Recognize different types of vegetation that are harmful or poisonous |
|
Safety and first aid |
l Simple
first aid ( e.g. cuts, burns, breaking bones) |
l Recognize
basic types of medication and how to use them |
|
Human growth and development |
l Recognize
the major body organs associated with digestion and name their functions |
l Know
basics of gender differences and puberty |
l Know
changes of the body in growing up |
|
Physical development |
l Regularly
participate in physical activity for the purpose of improving skillful performance
and physical fitness |
l Support,
lift, and control body weight in a variety of physical fitness activities |
l Demonstrate
the ability to avoid or catch an individual or object while moving |
l Balance,
with control, various objects while moving and while standing |
l Throw,
catch, and kick a ball |
l
Identify opportunities in the school and community for regular participation
in physical activities |
|
|
|
|
|